Abstract
Strain theory and anomie are two nearly identical structural
theories that are used to explain crime by analyzing environmental
conditions including cultures, subcultures, urbanization, social
norms and values, and societal goals. This theory works in tandem
with social disorganization by explaining the formation of
subcultures as an effort to combat invading populations with
different norms and values.
Evaluation
of Strain Theory and Anomie
Anomie and Strain theories have undergone many different revisions,
but essentially still center on how societal goals, social position,
and a lack of social integration lead to a strain on individuals in
the lower class. This strain on lower class peoples causes them to
act out with delinquent and criminal behaviors that would otherwise
not happen if the malintegration or lack of social norms were not
present (Akers & Sellers, 2013).
Durkheim
The first individual to pioneer this concept was Emile Durkheim. He
patented the term “anomie”, or a “state of normlessness or lack
of social regulation in modern society as one condition that promotes
higher rates of deviant behaviors such as suicide” (Akers &
Sellers, 2013). In Durkheim's discussions on suicide, he states that
“no living being can be happy or even exist unless his needs are
sufficiently proportioned to his means... if his needs require more
than can be granted, or even merely something of a different sort,
they will be under continual friction and can only function
painfully” (Durkheim, 2012). He surmises that because man's needs
are biological and psychological, unlike animals, it adds an extra
dimension of need for humans. Because psychological needs are
different for every person, some more so than others, when these
needs are not met the person is under constant psychological torture
and will try to alleviate this torture.
Merton
Robert Merton later reformed the idea and applied this to modern
societies. To Merton, an anomic society was one where there was no
balance between social structure and culture. He specifically applied
this to American culture, stating because of malintegration of
cultural beliefs of success being the quintessential goal, the
American Dream, those who lack legitimate and legal means to obtain
said goal will resort to illegitimate and illegal means to obtain
success (Akers & Sellers, 2013). To those who are under the
cultural strain, this warps their ethical system to a means justifies
the ends, or a teleological ethical system. Because those who are
“strained” view their ends as morally just because the culture
states that success is the panacea, the affirmed and ultimate
societal goal, people will justify their means, no matter how
illegitimate or illegal, as just because they are in pursuit of
success (Pollock, 2012).
There are several different responses of individuals, which are both
moral and immoral. First, strained individuals can conform. The
individual can simply accept they are at a disadvantage, but still
strive for success with the tools they are given by society. Second,
is innovation – the most common deviant response. When a strained
individual chooses innovation, they will use whatever means necessary
to achieve success, whether the means are moral or immoral.
Essentially, the Macgyver of society. The third response is
rebellion. Strained individuals who rebel reject societal norms
altogether and aim to overthrow the system using any means possible
(nonviolent or violent). The fourth response is retreatism – a
retreatist will completely back away from society by becoming a
“social dropout”. Retreatists will go about this by drug and
alcohol use. Merton also classified individuals with mental illnesses
as retreatists. Lastly, there are the ritualists. They give up on
societal goals completely and cease their efforts in obtaining
success. Instead, they cling to the resources they have already
obtained while still following society's norms (Akers & Sellers,
2013).
Cohen
In addition to Merton's work, Albert Cohen further elaborated on
strain/anomie as well. Cohen studied lower class adolescent boys who
had become involved in delinquent behavior. Cohen still agreed that
strained individuals will use specific means to obtain societal
goals, however he disagreed with Merton in that the main societal
goal was not success, but status and social acceptance. Cohen defined
status as “meeting society's standards of dress, behavior,
scholastic abilities, [etc]” (Akers & Sellers, 2013).
Cohen determined that lower class adolescent boys who were unable to
obtain these goals had “status deprivation” which leads to
“status frustration”. Because of the sheer numbers of lower class
adolescent boys who were unable to obtain status because of their
lack of verbal or social skills, they formed a delinquent subculture.
In this subculture, individuals would reject typical societal
standards in obtaining status, and use other negative means in
obtaining their goals such as violence, maliciousness, aggression,
etc. Cohen justified this by using the example of property crimes
committed by delinquent subcultures – there is no monetary gain in
the crime, but still they commit the act to gain status within their
subculture (Akers & Sellers, 2013).
Cloward and Ohlin
Another interpretation of strain/anomie was produced by Richard
Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin. This offshoot was titled differential
opportunity and delinquent subcultures. Their theory draws from both
anomie/strain as well as social disorganization.
Social disorganization theory is similar to anomie/strain in that
they are both structural theories, which “account for variations in
crime rates across communities by examining the variations in
structural characteristics and conditions of each community” (Akers
& Sellers, 2013). Social disorganization is based on a social
phenomena found both in human societies and animal societies. When a
new species moves into a community, the community changes drastically
because of the intensified competition for resources. The new species
gains dominance and the original population in the community will die
out or move away. In human societies, especially cities, this
phenomena has also been documented. For instance, Robert Park
observed how urban expansion will cause disorganization within a
community leading to the “invasion, domination, and succession”
cycle noted in animal societies (Akers & Sellers, 2013).
Burgess later developed the concentric zone theory which described
cities as rings of concentric circles – when the inner ring grew,
the outer rings of the city felt the affects. When one ring invaded
another ring, the invading ring would then dominate the original ring
and eventually overtake the newly gained territory. The area of
invasion is known as a “zone in transition”. This zone is
indicative of “physical decay, poor housing, incomplete and broken
families, high rates of illegitimate births and infant deaths, and an
unstable heterogeneous population” (Akers & Sellers, 2013).
Cloward and Ohlin's theories adapt anomie/strain, social
disorganization, as well as Aker's social learning theory by stating
that “deviant adaptions are explained by location in both the
legitimate and illegitimate opportunity structures” (Akers &
Sellers, 2013). Essentially, when one ring invades another, the
original population will go through the reactions described by
Merton. Individuals who are strained from the invasion will either
use adapting behaviors or deviant behaviors in reaction to the
invading ring.
Social learning plays a part in the adaptational reactions. The
invasion of the ring will create “learning environments” for
conformists or ritualists. They will follow the new social rules
imposed by the invading population and will either strive toward the
new population's societal goals or will cling to their current
resources and cease their attempts at advancement. Conversely, those
who choose deviant behaviors will create delinquent subcultures as a
result of the invading population (Akers & Sellers, 2013).
In addition, Cloward and Ohlin also disagree with Merton's original
theory in that strained individuals who are blocked from legitimate
means of obtaining the societal goal will not automatically start
searching for illegitimate means of obtaining the societal goal
simply because illegitimate means may be just as scarce as legitimate
means of obtaining the societal goal (Akers & Sellers, 2013).
Cloward and Ohlin also differentiated between the different types of
delinquent subcultures formed by strained individuals based on their
reactions to blocked legitimate means of obtaining the goal. These
subcultures include the criminal subculture, the conflict subculture,
and the retreatist subculture (Akers & Sellers, 2013).
The criminal subculture is self explanatory – the individuals
within the subculture are innovators in that they will use whatever
means necessary, specifically criminal or delinquent behaviors, to
obtain the societal goals. They are teleologists; for them, the means
justify the ends. The conflict subculture is described by their
status as a fighter or a warrior amongst their peers. Members of the
conflict subculture have just as few legitimate opportunities as
illegitimate and because of that their societal goal shifts to who is
the most fearless or toughest – essentially instead of success, it
becomes status within the subculture. The last subculture is the
retreatist subculture. This is similar to Merton's list of reactions.
Retreatists mainly focus on drugs and alcohol as a way to escape from
the societal goal. However, their use of drugs and alcohol within the
subculture will gain them status because of their ability to maintain
their addiction and habit (Akers & Sellers, 2013).
Miller
Miller's research primarily focuses on lower class adolescent males,
as do many of the other anomie/strain theorists. Because these
individuals have given up on the overall societal goal and now have
created a new goal, or focal concern, within their subculture, they
now have a new value structure. These values consist of:
- “Trouble” – the ability to get away with breaking the law
- “Toughness” – physical prowess and fearlessness
- “Smartness” – ability to “one up” others
- “Excitement” – thrill seeking
- “Fatalism” – dealings with luck
- “Autonomy” – freedom within their subculture from traditional authority figures (Akers & Sellers, 2013).
Crimes
Anomie/Strain theory can be used to describe multiple crimes
indicative of lower class neighborhoods or subcultures specific to
youth, gang related crime, and other monetary or violent crimes.
Juvenile Delinquency
There
are several different theories as to why juveniles commit crime. Some
say it is due to bad influences (social learning theory) while others
say it is due to environmental factors (social disorganization
theory, strain, or anomie). Some juvenile offenders become lifelong
criminals while others phase out of delinquent behavior (Loeber,
Farrington & Petechuk, 2013).
A
factor that could attribute to that deals with value structures as
well as societal goals. When juveniles shift into adulthood, their
values and morals change with added responsibility. Juveniles cease
following juvenile-specific social goals and move toward more adult
societal goals. Because of this, their adaptive methodology changes.
For some, they conform. The newly transitioned adult gets a job, a
car, a place of their own and works to obtain adult related goals.
Some become ritualists and cling to what they have, while following
society's standards and norms. However, for those juveniles who
continue to engage in delinquent behavior they become innovators or
rebels. Their goals shift to adult-oriented goals, however their
values do not. They will still use whatever means necessary to obtain
success or status (Loeber,
Farrington & Petechuk, 2013).
Property Crimes and Larceny
Property crimes can be explained by strain/anomie as well. Merton
described how innovators will use whatever means necessary to obtain
the societal goal. For American society, that goal is success/status.
American society is materialistic. We covet what other people have,
whether it is a huge expensive flat screen TV, a nice laptop,
priceless art work, etc. The list of material items that can be
stolen is astronomical.
For instance, celebrities in American society are known for their
money, possessions, and influence. Consider rap/hip-hop culture which
is indicative of money, drugs, sex, and guns. This image is present
as what success and status is for certain subcultures. Individuals in
this subculture will follow Merton's adaptional behaviors to obtain
said goals. For innovators or rebels, they will use illegal and
immoral means to obtain achieve this image including theft,
especially of jewelry, firearms, money, drugs, etc. Also, using the
example of the rap/hip-hop subculture, many of the proponents are
from inner city areas which fall into Park's social disorganization
theory. Because of the disorganization and the invasion of newer
populations, property crime in this subculture, especially theft and
vandalism, runs rampant (Blanchard, 1999).
Violent Crimes
Many different violent crimes can be explained by social
disorganization theory and strain/anomie theory. Some of these crimes
include rape, murder, and aggravated assault.
Rape
An
old phenomena, that has recently been relabelled in light of new
events and cases is rape culture. Rape culture
is an “environment
in which rape is prevalent and in which sexual violence against women
is normalized and excused in the media and popular culture.
Rape culture is perpetuated through the use of misogynistic language,
the objectification of women’s bodies, and the glamorization of
sexual violence, thereby creating a society that disregards women’s
rights and safety” (“Rape Culture”, 2014).
This
type of behavior has is indicative of strain/anomie because of a
clash in subcultures – the rape subculture with society's values on
the way women should be treated. The media, society, and law dictate
that rape is wrong, immoral, and illegal, however because of social
learning as well as strain/anomie, this particular set of behaviors
has become prevalent among younger men in frat subcultures. These
types of subcultures view social status as the ultimate goal and view
sexual conquest as a means to achieve this goal. It goes back to the
stereotype that men who have been with many women are jocks or studs
– they idealize a particular male stereotype, which is that
particular subculture's ultimate goal. In essence, they value the
devaluation of women, especially the innovator subtype, to the point
where rape becomes the main vehicle to which they obtain their goals
due to some block in their legitimate means of consensually bedding
as many women as possible.
The
innovators in this subculture will use terms to devalue women such as
victim blaming, pressuring others to “score”, trivializing sexual
assault, defining manhood as being sexually dominating or assertive,
sexually explicit jokes, etc (“Rape Culture”, 2014).
Assault
Cloward
and Ohlin discuss different types of subcultures where certain
behaviors are acceptable in order to obtain the specific culture's
goal. In the conflict subculture, Cloward and Ohlin state that
because both legitimate and illegitimate opportunities for obtaining
their goals are scarce
the members of the subculture shift their goals from success to
status and said status is gained by becoming the toughest member of
the subculture. This is done through fighting (Akers & Sellers,
2013).
Because
Cloward and Ohlin studied mainly lower class adolescent boys, their
findings showed most of their tension or aggression was directed at
adults. The members of this subculture viewed adults as weak. There
are no strong adult role models, so to adapt members would use
aggression to determine status (Akers & Sellers, 2013).
Another
explanation for assault can be explained by Park's interpretation of
social disorganization. Using the invasion, domination, and
succession model, it can be shown that assault and aggression may
play a large part considering the model is adversarial. It is very
much an us versus them situation (Akers & Sellers, 2013).
Gang Related Crimes
Gang related crimes are the proverbial bread and butter for
anomie/strain theorists, especially in dealing with delinquent
subcultural crime. Gang related offenses encompass many of the above
mentioned crimes, however because they are attributed to an entire
subculture instead of behaviors of a strained individual.
In the National Youth Gang Survey, policing agencies submitted data
they have collected regarding gang related crimes. Data collected
from 2010 to 2011 shows a 51% increase from the previous year, with a
48% increase in violent crimes and a 33% increase of drug related
crimes. One of the factors relating to the increase in violent crimes
concentrated on conflict between gangs. This plays into Cloward and
Ohlin's take on strain/anomie, specifically in dealing with the
invasion, domination, succession cycle. The study specifically
describes the migration of gangs as well as intra-gang conflict
regarding value structures that are specifically drug related
(“National Youth Gang”, 2014).
Another factor the study describes is a return from confinement.
This is interesting because gang members who were recently released
from prison will have been immersed in prison culture and subcultures
within the institution. Gang members who have been incarcerated have
a different value structure and status within gangs. Through social
learning, new criminal or deviant behaviors can be taught to other
gang members, leading to more deviant and illegal behaviors
(“National Youth Gang”, 2014).
The study also mentions new conflict arising from the emergence of
new gangs. This reflects social disorganization theory because of
Park's invasion, domination, and succession cycle.
Delinquent subcultures, such as gangs, follow Merton's innovator
reactionary pattern. Some of the crimes and behaviors attributed to
this include aggravated assault, drug sales, firearm use, robbery,
burgulary, motor vehicle theft, and larceny. These
illegal/illegitmate means of obtaining success reflect Merton's
concept of the innovator (“National Youth Gang”, 2014).
Conclusion
Overall, strain/anomie can explain crimes that are contained within
specific subcultures and are a direct result of environmental
conditions, however unlike social learning theory or psychological or
biological theories, crime is blamed on the environment or the
culture rather than the individual. It seems that the theories do
have merit in describing gang related activities and inner city
crimes related to environmental struggles, but fails with crimes such
as murder that is not related to some sort of cultural ritualism,
some forms of rape, some forms of property crimes, etc.
Works
Cited
Akers,
R., & Sellers, C. (2013). Criminological
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(6th ed.). Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press.
Blanchard,
B. (1999, July 26). The
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https://www.stanford.edu/class/e297c/poverty_prejudice/mediarace/socialsignificance.htm
Durkheim,
E. (2012).
Suicide.
In J. Jacoby, T. Severance & A. Bruce (Eds.), Classics
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Loeber,
R., Farrington, D., & Petechuk, D. U.S. Department of Justice,
(2013). Bulletin
1: From juvenile delinquency to young adult offending (study group on
the transitions between juvenile delinquency and adult crime) (242931
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Youth Gang Survey Analysis. (n.d.). Gang-Related
Offenses.
Retrieved April 25, 2014, from
http://www.nationalgangcenter.gov/survey-analysis/gang-related-offenses
Pollock,
J. (2012). Ethical
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(8th ed.). Belmont, California: Wadsworth.
Rape
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(2014, April 25). Retrieved from
http://www.marshall.edu/wcenter/sexual-assault/rape-culture/
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